Mini Review - Journal of Aging and Geriatric Psychiatry (2025) Volume 9, Issue 3

Brain�s neural circuits for cognition, behaviour

Ana Hategan^*

Department of Neurology, McMaster University

*Corresponding Author:

Ana Hategan
Department of Neurology
McMaster University.
E-mail: Hategan12@gmail.com

Received : 04-Aug-2025, Manuscript No. aaagp-25-204; Editor assigned : 06-Aug-2025, PreQC No. aaagp-25-204(PQ); Reviewed : 26-Aug-2025, QC No aaagp-25-204; Revised : 04-Sep-2025, Manuscript No. aaagp-25-204(R); Published : 15-Sep-2025 , DOI : 10.35841/aaagp-9.3.204

Citation: Hategan A. Brain's neural circuits for cognition, behavio. J Age Geriat Psych. 2025;09(03):204.

Introduction

Understanding the brain's intricate mechanisms for memory and learning remains a cornerstone of neuroscience. Recent investigations have illuminated the critical function of sleep in consolidating memories, specifically highlighting the dynamic interactions between the hippocampus and neocortex. Neural oscillations during sleep play a pivotal role in transferring and integrating new memories, transforming fragile traces into robust, long-term knowledge [4].

A foundational aspect of this process is synaptic plasticity, which represents the essential mechanism underlying how learning and memory occur. Researchers have extensively reviewed how alterations in synaptic strength, encompassing both Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) and Long-Term Depression (LTD), contribute directly to the encoding and storage of information within neural circuits. These changes ultimately shape behavioral outcomes, demonstrating the brain's remarkable adaptability [8].

Beyond memory, executive functions are crucial for goal-directed behavior. The prefrontal cortex, a key brain region, is central to orchestrating complex cognitive processes such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control. Studies consistently demonstrate how specific neural circuits within this region enable sophisticated decision-making and adaptive responses in various contexts [10].

This ties directly into the neurobiology of value-based decision making. Research synthesizes current understanding of how the brain assigns subjective values to different options, using these evaluations to guide choices. This complex cognitive process involves intricate roles of various brain regions and their connectivity, shedding light on how we make everyday decisions based on perceived rewards and risks [5].

A significant component in this reward system is dopamine. Recent findings have thoroughly examined dopamine's role in reward learning, revealing how dopaminergic circuits encode reward prediction errors. This mechanism is fundamental to influencing decision-making processes and the formation of habits, offering a comprehensive view of how dopamine impacts a wide array of adaptive behaviors [3].

Emotional regulation is another area receiving substantial attention. Meta-analyses of fMRI studies have explored the neural circuits involved, pinpointing key brain regions like the prefrontal cortex and amygdala. These studies highlight their crucial interactions during various emotion regulation strategies, providing insights into how individuals manage and modify their emotional responses to external stimuli [7].

Such emotional processes are often intertwined with social behaviors. The complex neural circuits driving social motivation and various social behaviors have been extensively investigated. Identifying specific brain regions and neurotransmitter systems vital for social interaction, attachment, and recognition provides a foundational understanding of the neurobiology of sociality, essential for comprehending human connection and communication [2].

Moreover, disruptions in these circuits contribute to significant neuropsychiatric conditions. For instance, the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus work together during fear extinction. This mechanism is critical, especially when considering Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Research outlines the intricate neural circuits, specific projections, and neuronal populations that inhibit fear responses, suggesting these insights are vital for understanding and potentially treating PTSD [1].

Similarly, the neurobiological pathways of addiction present a stark example of circuit dysregulation. Addiction progresses from initial reward-seeking to compulsive drug use, involving significant dysregulation of brain circuits tied to reward, stress, and executive function. These investigations offer profound insights into the underlying mechanisms that drive addictive behaviors, paving the way for targeted interventions [6].

Further compounding these challenges is the pervasive impact of stress. The intricate neurobiological underpinnings of the stress response detail how stress impacts brain function and behavior. This includes molecular, cellular, and circuit-level alterations that contribute to both adaptive and maladaptive responses, linking chronic stress to the development and exacerbation of various psychiatric disorders [9].

Conclusion

Contemporary neuroscience consistently reveals the intricate neural underpinnings of diverse cognitive and behavioral processes. Research highlights how the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus interact during fear extinction, providing vital context for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) understanding and treatment. This involves dissecting specific neural circuits and populations that inhibit fear responses. We see studies exploring neural circuits driving social motivation and behavior, pinpointing brain regions and neurotransmitter systems critical for social interaction, attachment, and recognition, establishing a core understanding of sociality's neurobiology. Dopamine plays a central role in reward learning, with dopaminergic circuits encoding reward prediction errors that influence decision-making and habit formation. This offers a comprehensive view of dopamine’s impact on adaptive behaviors. The crucial function of sleep in memory consolidation also emerges, with detailed investigations into hippocampal-neocortical interactions and how neural oscillations during sleep transfer new memories into stable long-term knowledge. Value-based decision-making is another significant area, with research synthesizing current knowledge on how the brain assigns subjective values to guide choices, involving various brain regions and their connectivity. The neurobiological pathways of addiction are traced, detailing its progression from initial reward-seeking to compulsive drug use. This involves dysregulation of brain circuits for reward, stress, and executive function. Emotion regulation, identified through fMRI meta-analyses, involves key brain regions like the prefrontal cortex and amygdala, and their interactions in managing emotional responses. Synaptic plasticity, a fundamental mechanism of learning and memory, is examined through changes in synaptic strength (Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) and Long-Term Depression (LTD)) that encode and store information. The intricate neurobiology of the stress response, including molecular, cellular, and circuit-level changes, reveals its impact on brain function and behavior, linking both adaptive and maladaptive responses to psychiatric disorders. Finally, neural circuits for executive functions, particularly the prefrontal cortex, are explored for their role in orchestrating working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control, which are vital for goal-directed behavior.

References

1. Scott M, Andrew H, Robert JM. Prefrontal cortex-hippocampus circuits in fear extinction: implications for PTSD. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2023;48(3):477-490.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

1. Byung KL, Yu RL, Sung L. Neural circuits underlying social motivation and behavior. Trends Neurosci. 2021;44(5):372-383.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

1. Wolfram S, Okihide H, Kenji N. Dopamine and reward learning: A review of recent findings. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2022;23(7):441-456.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

1. Susanne D, Jan B, Steffen G. Sleep and memory consolidation: The role of hippocampal-neocortical interactions. Neuron. 2023;111(8):1201-1215.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

1. Antonio R, Colin C, P. RM. The neurobiology of value-based decision making. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2021;22(8):467-482.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

1. George FK, Nora DV, Olivier G. Neurobiology of addiction: From reward to compulsivity. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2023;24(1):23-38.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

1. Amit E, James JG, Kevin NO. Neural mechanisms of emotion regulation: A meta-analysis of fMRI studies. Trends Cogn Sci. 2020;24(6):448-462.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

1. Mark FB, Robert CM, Roger AN. Synaptic plasticity in learning and memory. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2020;21(10):549-562.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

1. Marian J, Tallie ZB, Marije JAGH. The neurobiology of stress: From basic mechanisms to psychiatric disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2021;22(5):267-279.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

1. Earl KM, Jonathan DC, Steven LB. Neural circuits for executive function: Focus on the prefrontal cortex. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2022;23(3):189-204.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref